Member states of the World Trade Organization
The original member states of the World Trade Organization are the parties to the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) after ratifying the Uruguay Round Agreements,[1] and the European Communities. They obtained this status at the entry into force on 1 January 1995 or upon their date of ratification. All other members have joined the organization as a result of negotiation, and membership consists of a balance of rights and obligations.[2] The process of becoming a World Trade Organization (WTO) member is unique to each applicant country, and the terms of accession are dependent upon the country's stage of economic development and the current trade regime.[3]
An offer of accession is given once consensus is reached among members.[4] The process takes about five years, on average, but it can take some countries almost a decade if the country is less than fully committed to the process, or if political issues interfere. The shortest accession negotiation was that of Kyrgyzstan, lasting 2 years and 10 months. The longest were that of Russia, lasting 19 years and 2 months,[5] Vanuatu, lasting 17 years and 1 month,[6] and China, lasting 15 years and 5 months.[7]
As of 2007, WTO member states represented 96.4% of global trade and 96.7% of global GDP.[8] Iran, followed by Algeria, are the economies with the largest GDP and trade outside the WTO, using 2005 data.[9][10]
Accession process
[edit]![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/WTO_enlargement.svg/400px-WTO_enlargement.svg.png)
A country wishing to accede to the WTO submits an application to the General Council. The government applying for membership has to describe all aspects of its trade and economic policies that have a bearing on WTO agreements.[2] The application is submitted to the WTO in a memorandum which is examined by a working party open to all interested WTO Members, and dealing with the country's application. For large countries such as Russia, numerous countries participate in this process. For smaller countries, the Quadrilateral group of members—consisting of Canada, the European Union, Japan, and the United States—and an applicant's neighboring countries are typically most involved.[12] The applicant then presents a detailed memorandum to the Working Party on its foreign trade regime, describing, among other things, its economy, economic policies, domestic and international trade regulations, and intellectual property policies. The Working Party Members submit written questions to the applicant to clarify aspects of its foreign trade regime with particular attention being paid to the degree of privatization in the economy and the extent to which government regulation is transparent.[13] After all necessary background information has been acquired, the Working Party will begin meeting to focus on issues of discrepancy between the WTO rules and the Applicant's international and domestic trade policies and laws. The WP determines the terms and conditions of entry into the WTO for the applicant nation, and may consider transitional periods to allow countries some leeway in complying with the WTO rules.[3]
The final phase of accession involves bilateral negotiations between the applicant nation and other Working Party members regarding the concessions and commitments on tariff levels and market access for goods and services. These talks cover tariff rates and specific market access commitments, and other policies in goods and services. The new member's commitments are to apply equally to all WTO members under normal non-discrimination rules, even though they are negotiated bilaterally. In other words, the talks determine the benefits (in the form of export opportunities and guarantees) other WTO members can expect when the new member joins. The talks can be highly complicated; it has been said that in some cases the negotiations are almost as large as an entire round of multilateral trade negotiations.[2]
When the bilateral talks conclude, the working party finalizes the terms of accession, sends an accession package, which includes a summary of all the WP meetings, the Protocol of Accession (a draft membership treaty), and lists ("schedules") of the member-to-be's commitments to the General Council or Ministerial Conference. Once the General Council or Ministerial Conference approves of the terms of accession, the applicant's parliament must ratify the Protocol of Accession before it can become a member.[14] The documents used in the accession process which are embargoed during the accession process are released once the nation becomes a member.[3]
Members and observers
[edit]![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/WTO_members_and_observers.svg/400px-WTO_members_and_observers.svg.png)
As of July 2016, the WTO has 164 members.[15] Of the 128 states party to GATT at the end of 1994, all have since become WTO members except for the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, which had dissolved in 1992 and was suspended from participating in GATT at the time.[16][17] Four other states, China, Lebanon, Liberia, and Syria, were parties to GATT but subsequently withdrew from the treaty prior to the establishment of the WTO.[16][18] China and Liberia have since acceded to the WTO. The remaining WTO members acceded after first becoming WTO observers and negotiating membership.
The 27 states of the European Union are dually represented, as the EU is a full member of the organization. Other autonomous entities are eligible for full membership in the WTO provided that they have a separate customs territory with full autonomy in the conduct of their external commercial relations. Thus, Hong Kong became a GATT contracting party, by the now terminated "sponsorship" procedure of the United Kingdom (Hong Kong uses the name "Hong Kong, China" since 1997), as did Macao. A new member of this type is the Republic of China (Taiwan), which acceded to the WTO in 2002, and carefully crafted its application by joining under the name "Separate Customs Territory of Taiwan, Penghu, Kinmen and Matsu (Chinese Taipei)"[19][20] so that they were not rejected as a result of the One China principle implemented by the People's Republic of China.
The WTO also has 25 observer states,[15] that with the exception of the Holy See must start their accession negotiations within five years of becoming observers. The last country admitted as observer-only before applying for full membership was Equatorial Guinea in 2002, but since 2007 it is also in full membership negotiations. In 2007 Liberia and Comoros applied directly for full membership. Some international intergovernmental organizations are also granted observer status to WTO bodies.[21] The Palestinian Authority submitted a request for WTO observer status in October 2009[22] and again in April 2010.[23]
Afghanistan is the newest member, joining effective 29 July 2016.[24]
Russia was one of the only two large economies outside of the WTO after Saudi Arabia joined in 2005.[25][26] It had begun negotiating to join the WTO's predecessor in 1993. The final major point of contention—related to the 2008 Russo-Georgian War—was solved through mediation by Switzerland,[25] leading to Russian membership in 2012. The other is Iran, which is an observer state and begun negotiations in 1996.
A membership offer requires a two-thirds majority vote among existing members,[27][28] while the granting of observer status requires a simple majority.[29][30] Observers have speaking rights after members have spoken, but not the right to submit proposals or voting rights.
List of members and accession dates
[edit]The following table lists all current members, their accession date and previous GATT membership, of which there were 128 nations when the transformation was consummated.[15][17][31]
State[15][32][17] | Date of accession | GATT membership |
---|---|---|
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29 July 2016 | |
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8 September 2000 | |
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23 November 1996 | 8 April 1994 |
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1 January 1995 | 30 March 1987 |
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1 January 1995 | 11 October 1967 |
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5 February 2003 | |
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1 January 1995 | 1 January 1948 |
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1 January 1995 | 19 October 1951 |
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1 January 1995 | 13 December 1993 |
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1 January 1995 | 16 December 1972 |
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1 January 1995 | 15 February 1967 |
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1 January 1995 | 1 January 1948 |
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1 January 1995 | 7 October 1983 |
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22 February 1996 | 12 September 1963 |
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12 September 1995 | 8 September 1990 |
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31 May 1995 | 28 August 1987 |
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1 January 1995 | 30 July 1948 |
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1 January 1995 | 9 December 1993 |
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1 December 1996 | |
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3 June 1995 | 3 May 1963 |
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23 July 1995 | 13 March 1965 |
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13 October 2004 | |
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13 December 1995 | 3 May 1963 |
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1 January 1995 | 1 January 1948 |
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23 July 2008 | |
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31 May 1995 | 3 May 1963 |
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19 October 1996 | 12 July 1963 |
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1 January 1995 | 16 March 1949 |
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11 December 2001 | |
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30 April 1995 | 3 October 1981 |
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1 January 1997 | 11 September 1971 |
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27 March 1997 | 3 May 1963 |
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1 January 1995 | 24 November 1990 |
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1 January 1995 | 31 December 1963 |
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30 November 2000 | |
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20 April 1995 | 1 January 1948 |
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30 July 1995 | 15 July 1963 |
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1 January 1995 | 15 April 1993 |
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1 January 1995 | 28 May 1950 |
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31 May 1995 | 16 December 1994 |
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1 January 1995 | 20 April 1993 |
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9 March 1995 | 19 May 1950 |
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21 January 1996 | |
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30 June 1995 | 9 May 1970 |
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7 May 1995 | 22 May 1991 |
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13 November 1999 | |
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1 January 1995 | 8 February 1993 |
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1 January 1995 | |
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14 January 1996 | 16 November 1993 |
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1 January 1995 | 25 May 1950 |
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1 January 1995 | 1 January 1948 |
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1 January 1995 | 3 May 1963 |
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23 October 1996 | 22 February 1965 |
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14 June 2000 | |
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1 January 1995 | 1 October 1951 |
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1 January 1995 | 17 October 1957 |
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1 January 1995 | 1 March 1950 |
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22 February 1996 | 9 February 1994 |
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21 July 1995 | 10 October 1991 |
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25 October 1995 | 8 December 1994 |
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31 May 1995 | 17 March 1994 |
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1 January 1995 | 5 July 1966 |
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30 January 1996 | 1 January 1950 |
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1 January 1995 | 10 April 1994 |
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1 January 1995 | 23 April 1986 |
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1 January 1995 | 9 September 1973 |
![]() |
1 January 1995 | 21 April 1968 |
![]() |
1 January 1995 | 8 July 1948 |
![]() |
1 January 1995 | 24 February 1950 |
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1 January 1995 | 22 December 1967 |
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21 April 1995 | 5 July 1962 |
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1 January 1995 | 30 May 1950 |
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9 March 1995 | 31 December 1963 |
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1 January 1995 | 10 September 1955 |
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11 April 2000 | |
![]() |
30 November 2015 | |
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1 January 1995 | 5 February 1964 |
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1 January 1995 | 14 April 1967 |
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1 January 1995 | 3 May 1963 |
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20 December 1998 | |
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2 February 2013 | |
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10 February 1999 | |
![]() |
31 May 1995 | 8 January 1988 |
![]() |
14 July 2016 | |
![]() |
1 September 1995 | 29 March 1994 |
![]() |
31 May 2001 | |
![]() |
1 January 1995 | 1 January 1948 |
![]() |
17 November 1995 | 30 September 1963 |
![]() |
31 May 1995 | 28 August 1964 |
![]() |
1 January 1995 | 24 October 1957 |
![]() |
31 May 1995 | 19 April 1983 |
![]() |
31 May 1995 | 11 January 1993 |
![]() |
1 January 1995 | 17 November 1964 |
![]() |
1 January 1995 | 11 January 1991 |
![]() |
31 May 1995 | 30 September 1963 |
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1 January 1995 | 2 September 1970 |
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1 January 1995 | 24 August 1986 |
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26 July 2001 | |
![]() |
29 January 1997 | |
![]() |
29 April 2012[38] | |
![]() |
1 January 1995 | 17 June 1987 |
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26 August 1995 | 27 July 1992 |
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1 January 1995 | 29 July 1948 |
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1 January 1995 | 15 September 1992 |
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23 April 2004 | |
![]() |
1 January 1995 | 1 January 1948 |
![]() |
1 January 1995 | 30 July 1948 |
![]() |
3 September 1995 | 28 May 1950 |
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13 December 1996 | 31 December 1963 |
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1 January 1995 | 18 November 1960 |
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4 April 2003 | |
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1 January 1995 | 10 July 1948 |
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9 November 2000 | |
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1 January 1995 | 30 July 1948 |
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6 September 1997 | |
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9 June 1996 | 16 December 1994 |
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1 January 1995 | 6 January 1994 |
![]() |
1 January 1995 | 7 October 1951 |
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1 January 1995 | 27 December 1979 |
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1 July 1995 | 18 October 1967 |
![]() |
1 January 1995 | 6 May 1962 |
![]() |
13 January 1996 | 7 April 1994 |
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1 January 1995 | 14 November 1971 |
![]() |
22 August 2012 | |
![]() |
22 May 1996 | 1 January 1966 |
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21 February 1996 | 24 March 1994 |
![]() |
1 January 1995 | 13 April 1993 |
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1 January 1995 | 18 May 1993 |
![]() |
10 May 2012[38] | |
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11 December 2005 | |
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1 January 1995 | 27 September 1963 |
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26 April 2015 | |
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23 July 1995 | 19 May 1961 |
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1 January 1995 | 20 August 1973 |
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1 January 1995 | 15 April 1993 |
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30 July 1995 | 30 October 1994 |
![]() |
26 July 1996 | 28 December 1994 |
![]() |
1 January 1995 | 13 June 1948 |
![]() |
1 January 1995 | 29 August 1963 |
![]() |
1 January 1995 | 29 July 1948 |
![]() |
1 January 1995 | 22 March 1978 |
![]() |
1 January 1995 | 30 April 1950 |
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1 July 1995 | 1 August 1966 |
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1 January 2002 | |
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2 March 2013 | |
![]() |
1 January 1995 | 9 December 1961 |
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1 January 1995 | 20 November 1982 |
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31 May 1995 | 20 March 1964 |
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27 July 2007 | |
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1 March 1995 | 23 October 1962 |
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29 March 1995 | 29 August 1990 |
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26 March 1995 | 17 October 1951 |
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1 January 1995 | 23 October 1962 |
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16 May 2008 | |
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10 April 1996 | 8 March 1994 |
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1 January 1995 | 1 January 1948 |
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1 January 1995 | 1 January 1948 |
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1 January 1995 | 6 December 1953 |
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24 August 2012[6] | |
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1 January 1995 | 31 August 1990 |
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11 January 2007 | |
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26 June 2014 | |
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1 January 1995 | 10 February 1982 |
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5 March 1995 | 11 July 1948 |
- Notes
- ^ The WTO continues to recognize the government of the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan.[33]
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n Member state of the European Union.
- ^ a b Member state of the European Union since 2007.
- ^ Member state of the European Union since 2013.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j Member state of the European Union since 2004.
- ^ Known as Swaziland until 2018.
- ^ All member countries of the European Union are also members of the WTO individually.
- ^ Official name was Hong Kong until 1997.[34][35]
- ^ Official name was Macao until 1999.[36][37]
- ^ Known as the Republic of Macedonia until 2019.
- ^ Officially uses the designation "Separate Customs Territory of Taiwan, Penghu, Kinmen and Matsu".
- ^ Former Member state of the European Union until withdrawing in 2020. Extended its membership to the Channel Islands on 1 January 2021.[39][40][41]
List of observers
[edit]The following table lists all 25 WTO observers.[15][42] Within five years of being granted observer status by the WTO, states are required to begin negotiating their accession to the organization.[15]
On 26 February 2024, at the 13th Ministerial Conference in Abu Dhabi, Comoros and Timor Leste were approved to became members, and completed their domestic ratification procedures by 22 July.[43]
State | Date of membership application | Status[44] |
---|---|---|
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3 June 1987 | Inactive since 2014 |
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4 July 1997 | Inactive since 1999 |
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30 June 1997 | Work in progress |
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10 May 2001 | Inactive since 2019 |
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23 September 1993 | Inactive since 2019 |
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1 September 1999 | Reactivation |
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11 May 1999 | Reactivation |
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22 February 2007 | Strategic focus |
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31 October 2019[46] | Activation |
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19 February 2007 | Activation |
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13 January 2003 | Reactivation |
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None[a] | Observer since 1997[47] |
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19 July 1996 | Inactive since 2011 |
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30 September 2004 | Reactivation |
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30 January 1999 | Inactive since 2017 |
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10 June 2004 | Inactive since 2004 |
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14 January 2005 | Inactive since 2005 |
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23 December 2004 | Inactive since 2013 |
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12 December 2015[48] | Activation |
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5 December 2017[49] | Inactive since 2019 |
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11 October 1994 | Inactive since 2021 |
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10 October 2001 | Inactive since 2010 |
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9 April 2015[48] | Strategic focus |
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24 November 2021[51] | Activation |
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8 December 1994 | Work in progress |
- Notes
Neither members nor observers
[edit]Applicants
[edit]- Since 2005, UN General Assembly observer state Palestine has been granted speaking rights at each Ministerial Conference of the WTO, under the name Palestinian Authority until 2009 and under the name Palestine from 2011 onward.[52][53][54] Palestine is not listed as an "observer government" like other observer states, and is instead listed under "other observers" in the same category as non-state observers such as the International Trade Centre and World Bank.[55] Palestine applied for observer state status on 2 October 2009 and 12 April 2010.[56][57] As of 2 December 2016,[update] Palestine had expressed an interest in joining the WTO as a full member.[58]
- On 17 November 2019, the African Union applied for observer status.[59]
Other states
[edit]The following table lists all UN member states which are neither members nor observers of the WTO.[15]
Additionally, as of 16 November 2015[update] Kosovo had expressed an interest in joining the WTO as a member.[60]
See also
[edit]References
[edit]- ^ Legal texts: the WTO agreements at World Trade Organization
- ^ a b c Membership, Alliances and Bureaucracy, World Trade Organization
- ^ a b c Accessions Summary, Center for International Development
- ^ C. Michalopoulos, WTO Accession, 64
- ^ Russia's entry to WTO ends 19 years of negotiations The Guardian, 22 August 2012
- ^ a b Vanuatu:accession status at WTO official website
- ^ P. Farah, "Five Years of China's WTO Membership", 263–304
- ^ "Accession in perspective". World Trade Organization. Retrieved 22 December 2013.
- ^ "ANNEX 1. STATISTICAL SURVEY". World Trade Organization. 2005. Retrieved 22 December 2013.
- ^ Arjomandy, Danial (21 November 2013). "Iranian Membership in the World Trade Organization: An Unclear Future". Iranian Studies. 47 (6): 933–950. doi:10.1080/00210862.2013.859810. S2CID 162297876.
- ^ "Summary Table of Ongoing Accessions". World Trade Organization. April 2014. Retrieved 25 October 2014.
- ^ C. Michalopoulos, WTO Accession, 62
- ^ C. Michalopoulos, WTO Accession, 63
- ^ How to Become a Member of the WTO, World Trade Organization
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k Members and Observers at WTO official website
- ^ a b c "World Trade Report" (PDF). World Trade Organization. 2007. Retrieved 11 April 2014.
- ^ a b c "The 128 countries that had signed GATT by 1994". World Trade Organization. Retrieved 11 April 2014.
- ^ a b "Article XXXI - Withdrawal" (PDF). World Trade Organization. Retrieved 11 April 2014.
- ^ Jackson J. H., Sovereignty, p. 109
- ^ "Member information - Separate Customs Territory of Taiwan, Penghu, Kinmen and Matsu (Chinese Taipei) and the WTO". World Trade Organization. Retrieved 19 February 2013.
- ^ International Intergovernmental Organizations Granted Observer Status to WTO Bodies, World Trade Organization
- ^ "Palestine - Request for Observer Status". Taiwan WTO Center. 6 October 2009. Archived from the original on 22 December 2012. Retrieved 3 November 2012.
- ^ "Palestine - Request for Observer Status". Taiwan TWO Center. 13 April 2010. Archived from the original on 22 December 2012. Retrieved 3 November 2012.
- ^ "Afghanistan to become 164th WTO member on 29 July 2016". World Trade Organization. 29 June 2016. Retrieved 1 July 2016.
- ^ a b "Russia becomes WTO member after 18 years of talks". BBC. 16 December 2011. Retrieved 17 December 2011.
- ^ Heilprin, John (17 December 2011). "Russia gets approval to join the WTO". San Francisco Chronicle. Retrieved 17 December 2011.
- ^ "WTO | Understanding the WTO - membership, alliances and bureaucracy". www.wto.org. Retrieved 26 January 2024.
- ^ "WTO | Understanding the WTO - Whose WTO is it anyway?". www.wto.org. Retrieved 26 January 2024.
- ^ https://www.wto.org/english/docs_e/legal_e/04-wto.pdf [bare URL PDF]
- ^ https://docs.wto.org/dol2fe/Pages/SS/directdoc.aspx?filename=q:/WT/L/161.pdf&Open=True [bare URL]
- ^ "ACCESSIONS: Protocols of accession for new members since 1995, including commitments in goods and services". World Trade Organization. Retrieved 5 September 2019.
- ^ Status of WTO Legal Instruments (PDF). World Trade Organization. 2012. Retrieved 24 July 2013.
- ^ "Docsonline Maintenance".
- ^ https://web.archive.org/web/20240120060735/https://docs.wto.org/dol2fe/Pages/SS/directdoc.aspx?filename=Q:/GG/L5999/5986.PDF&Open=True [bare URL]
- ^ "Wt/L/218". Archived from the original on 20 January 2024.
- ^ https://web.archive.org/web/20240120060846/https://docs.wto.org/dol2fe/Pages/SS/directdoc.aspx?filename=Q:/GG/L6999/6806.PDF&Open=True [bare URL]
- ^ "Wt/L/333". Archived from the original on 20 January 2024.
- ^ a b Montenegro and Samoa strengthen the WTO WTO media release, 30 April 2012
- ^ "Channel Islands to become part of UK's WTO territory". BBC News. 18 October 2019.
- ^ "Guernsey will get WTO membership after Brexit". Bailiwick Express. 19 October 2019.
- ^ Taylor, Ed (19 October 2019). "Agreement puts Island on 'strongest possible footing' for post-Brexit trade". Jersey Evening Post.
- ^ "WTO Members and Accession Candidates". World Trade Organization. March 2013. Retrieved 23 April 2013.
- ^ "Ministers approve WTO membership of Comoros and Timor-Leste at MC13". World Trade Organization. 26 February 2024. Retrieved 26 February 2024.
- ^ "WTO ACCESSIONS 2023 ANNUAL REPORT BY THE DIRECTOR-GENERAL*". World Trade Organization. 20 March 2024. Retrieved 24 March 2024.
- ^ "Members endorse Curaçao's bid for WTO membership". World Trade Organization. 3 March 2020. Retrieved 7 March 2020.
- ^ "WTO Accession Newsletter No 96" (PDF). World Trade Organization. Retrieved 7 December 2019.
- ^ "Welcome to the Holy See Mission". Holy See Mission to the United Nations in Geneva. Retrieved 24 April 2013.
- ^ a b "WT/ACC/28 - WTO Accessions: 2016 Annual Report by the Director-General – Statement by the Director-General". World Trade Organization. 2 December 2016. Retrieved 7 December 2016.
- ^ "WTO Accession Newsletter" (PDF). World Trade Organization. December 2017. Retrieved 26 December 2017.
- ^ "Members endorse Turkmenistan's WTO observer status". World Trade Organization. 22 July 2020. Retrieved 26 July 2020.
- ^ "Turkmenistan formally applies for WTO membership". World Trade Organization. 24 November 2021. Retrieved 26 November 2021.
- ^ "Wt/Min(05)/St/170".
- ^ https://web.archive.org/web/20221118211510/https://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/minist_e/min09_e/stat_e/pse.doc [bare URL]
- ^ https://web.archive.org/web/20221118190147/https://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/minist_e/min11_e/stat_e/pse.doc [bare URL]
- ^ "WTO | Ministerial conferences - Eleventh WTO Ministerial Conference - Statements by Members and observers at the plenary session".
- ^ "WT/L/770 - PALESTINE – REQUEST FOR OBSERVER STATUS". World Trade Organization. 6 October 2009. Retrieved 10 September 2017.
- ^ "WT/L/792 - PALESTINE – REQUEST FOR OBSERVER STATUS". World Trade Organization. 13 April 2010. Retrieved 10 September 2017.
- ^ "WTO ACCESSIONS 2016 ANNUAL REPORT BY THE DIRECTOR-GENERAL". World Trade Organization. 2 December 2016. Retrieved 21 January 2024.
- ^ https://docs.wto.org/dol2fe/Pages/SS/directdoc.aspx?filename=t:/WT/GC/W789.docx&Open=True [bare URL]
- ^ "WTO ACCESSIONS 2015 ANNUAL REPORT BY THE DIRECTOR-GENERAL". World Trade Organization. 16 November 2015. Retrieved 21 January 2024.
Bibliography and Web
[edit]- "Accessions Gateway". World Trade Organization. Retrieved 12 July 2012.
- "Accessions News Archive". World Trade Organization. Retrieved 12 July 2012.
- Aslund, Anders (21 December 2007). "Russia's WTO Accession". Speeches, Testimony, Papers. Peter G. Peterson Institute for International Politics. Retrieved 16 March 2007.
- "Factsheet on U.S. – Russia WTO Bilateral Market Access Agreement". Office of the United States Trade Representative. 10 November 2007. Archived from the original on 27 April 2007. Retrieved 16 March 2007.
- Farah, Paolo (August 2006). "Five Years of China WTO Membership. EU and US Perspectives about China's Compliance with Transparency Commitments and the Transitional Review Mechanism". Legal Issues of Economic Integration. 33 (3). doi:10.54648/LEIE2006016. S2CID 153128973. SSRN 916768.
- "How to Become a Member of the WTO". Accession: Explanation. World Trade Organization. Retrieved 16 March 2007.
- "International Intergovernmental Organizations Granted Observer Status to WTO bodies". World Trade Organization. Retrieved 16 March 2007.
- Jackson, John H. (2006). "The World Trade Organization: Structure of the Treaty and the Institution". Sovereignty, the WTO and Changing Fundamentals of International Law. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-86007-9.
- "Members and Observers". Understanding the WTO. World Trade Organization. Retrieved 16 March 2007.
- "Membership, Alliances and Bureaucracy". Understanding the WTO. World Trade Organization. Retrieved 16 March 2007.
- Michalopoulos, Constantine (2002). "WTO Accession". In Bernard M. Hoekman; Aaditya Mattoo; Philip English (eds.). Development, Trade, and the WTO: A Handbook. World Bank Publications. ISBN 978-0-8213-4997-7.
- Charnovitz, Steve (19 January 2007). "Mapping the Law of WTO Accession (by Steve Charnovitz)". SRRN. SSRN 957651.
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